Assumptions & Data

All detailed SolarMetrics parameters

All assumptions used in our calculations — verifiable, reproducible, versioned.

Dataset v2026-03 · Updated: March 7, 2026

CAPEX — Capital Investment Costs

Parameter	Value	Unit	Note	Source
PERC Modules	0.08 — 0.10	€/Wc	FOB, declining market share	Fraunhofer ISE 2025
TOPCon Modules	0.09 — 0.11	€/Wc	49% market share 2025	PV Tech, Fraunhofer ISE
HJT Modules	0.12 — 0.15	€/Wc	Premium, high efficiency	PV Tech
Europe Modules	0.095 — 0.115	€/Wp	Modules shipped Europe	Fraunhofer ISE 2025
String inverter <15 kW	44	€/kW	Less than 15 kW	European Solar Trade Body Q3 2025
String inverter >15 kW	35	€/kW	Greater than 15 kW	European Solar Trade Body Q3 2025
Micro-inverter	150 — 300	€/unit	Per panel	Installer quotes FR 2025
Hybrid inverter <15 kW	97	€/kW	Less than 15 kW	European Solar Trade Body Q3 2025
Hybrid inverter >15 kW	86	€/kW	Greater than 15 kW	European Solar Trade Body Q3 2025
LFP battery residential	600 — 1,200	€/kWh	Installed, VAT included	Clean Energy Reviews, quotes FR 2025
Tesla Powerwall 3 Battery	1,200	€/kWh	13.5 kWh, installed	Clean Energy Reviews 2025
BYD Battery	700	€/kWh	10 kWh, installed	Installer quotes FR 2025
Huawei Battery	750	€/kWh	10 kWh, installed	Installer quotes FR 2025
Residential installation ≤3 kWc	2.00 — 2.50	€/Wc	VAT 5.5%	IRENA, Enerplan, SER
Residential installation 3-9 kWc	1.80 — 2.20	€/Wc	VAT 5.5%	IRENA, Enerplan, SER
C&I installation 36-100 kWc	1.20 — 1.60	€/Wc	VAT 20%	IRENA, Enerplan
Utility installation >250 kWc	0.70 — 0.90	€/Wc	Tracker	IRENA WETO 2024

OPEX — Operating Costs

Parameter	Value	Unit	Note	Source
Residential maintenance	15	€/kWc/year	Cleaning, monitoring	ADEME, installer FR
C&I maintenance	10 — 15	€/kWc/year	O&M contract	IRENA
Utility maintenance	7 — 12	€/kWc/year	Outsourced O&M	IRENA
Insurance	0.3 — 0.5	% CAPEX/year	—	Market practice FR
Panel degradation	0.5	%/year	Typical manufacturer warranty	IEC 61215, manufacturers
Battery degradation	2.0	%/year	LFP typical	Manufacturers (BYD, Tesla)

WACC / Discount Rate

Parameter	Value	Unit	Note	Source
France residential	3.0	%	Household opportunity cost	SolarMetrics hypothesis
France C&I	4.0 — 6.0	%	SME/ETI, bank debt	IRENA, market practice
France utility	5.0 — 7.0	%	Project finance, SPV	IRENA WETO 2024
Southern Europe	4.5 — 6.5	%	Spain, Italy, Greece	IRENA
Northern Europe	5.0 — 7.5	%	Germany, Netherlands, UK	IRENA

Yield / Productivity

Parameter	Value	Unit	Note	Source
Northern France	900 — 1,100	kWh/kWc/year	Paris, Lille, Brittany	PVGIS TMY
Central France	1,100 — 1,300	kWh/kWc/year	Lyon, Bordeaux, Nantes	PVGIS TMY
Southern France	1,300 — 1,550	kWh/kWc/year	Marseille, Montpellier, Nice	PVGIS TMY
Spain	1,500 — 1,900	kWh/kWc/year	—	PVGIS TMY
Germany	800 — 1,100	kWh/kWc/year	—	PVGIS TMY
Typical system losses	10 — 16	%	Wiring, inverter, dust, temperature	PVGIS default 14%

Electricity Prices & Tariffs

Parameter	Value	Unit	Note	Source
France household electricity	0.2516	€/kWh	VAT incl., regulated tariff Q2 2025	Eurostat, CRE
France C&I electricity	0.12 — 0.18	€/kWh	Contract, excl. TURPE	CRE
France electricity price increase	3.0	%/year	10-year historical average	Eurostat, INSEE
FIT self-consumption ≤9 kWc	0.04	€/kWh	Surplus, Q1 2026	photovoltaique.info
FIT self-consumption 9-36 kWc	0.0536	€/kWh	9-36 kWc, Q1 2026	photovoltaique.info
FIT self-consumption 36-100 kWc	0.0792	€/kWh	36-100 kWc, Q1 2026	photovoltaique.info
Self-consumption bonus	80	€/kWc	One-time payment, 2026	quelleenergie.fr, Légifrance
VAT reduced	5.5	%	Installations ≤9 kWc, since oct 2025	Service-public.fr

CO₂ Emission Factors

Parameter	Value	Unit	Note	Source
France average mix	55	gCO₂/kWh	Annual average mix	RTE Electricity Report 2024
France marginal mix	400	gCO₂/kWh	Marginal (gas)	RTE, ADEME
Solar life cycle	30	gCO₂/kWh	Manufacturing + transport + recycling	IPCC AR6, Fraunhofer ISE
Germany mix	350	gCO₂/kWh	—	UBA 2024
Poland mix	650	gCO₂/kWh	—	EEA 2024
Europe average mix	230	gCO₂/kWh	—	EEA 2024

Limitations & Notes

• Module prices are FOB (Free On Board) prices, excluding transport and European import taxes.
• Residential installed costs include labor, Consuel connection and commissioning.
• FIT tariffs change quarterly — check photovoltaique.info.
• Self-consumption bonus may be modified by ministerial decree.
• CO₂ factors vary by time of day (merit order).
• Battery prices evolve rapidly (-15-20%/year) — data to be updated.

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Methodology

Compilation of verified public sources. All prices are in current euros unless noted otherwise. Ranges reflect geographic and technological dispersion. Each parameter is documented with its source, enabling full reproducibility of calculations. The dataset is versioned and dated to ensure traceability of assumptions used in our analyses. Quarterly updates are planned to reflect market evolution.

Last updated: March 7, 2026

Compiled by: Bernard Pugnet — SolarMetrics

Main sources: Fraunhofer ISE, IRENA, BNEF, PV Tech, photovoltaique.info, Légifrance, RTE, ADEME, Eurostat, INSEE